History of Gaming Essay Example for Free

History of Gaming Essay Gaming has been around since the late 1960’s far later than I had suspected, for me I had consistently imagined that the Atari 2600 was the primary gaming framework in the world, and in the wake of beginning my examination I discovered how wrong I was. In this piece of the groups paper I will examine the various kinds of this innovation thought it history. In 1967 the principal gaming console at any point was made and was named the â€Å"Brown Box.† A German conceived TV engineer Ralph Baer and his partners made the Brown Box which chipped away at your essential standard TV. Working with a firm called Sanders Associates, Baer alongside collaborators drew up schematics for a game which was known as the pursuit game, and they manufactured a vacuum tube circuit that associated with the TV. Two players controlled two squares that fundamentally pursued each other on the screen, by then gaming was conceived. Baer and his partners later included a light fun and built up an aggregate of 12 games for the Brown Box. Quick forward five years after Baer and his partners made the Brown Box, Magnavox started creation of the Magnavox Odyssey. The Odyssey was known as the main business computer game comfort and was promoted in Magnavox TV vendors. The Odyssey utilized six cartridges to play up to twelve games. The Odyssey ruin is that numerous TV vendors didn’t see any potential in it and alongside the bogus talk that it just worked in Magnavox TVs hurt the prominence of the gaming frameworks. In 1972 Nolan Bushnell established Atari and after three years in 1975, they had their first raving success with an arcade game called Pong. Atari sold a home adaptation of the game Pong through Sears under the Sears Tele-games mark. What made Pong interesting was that it delivered an on-screen score and sound all by single chip. With his first framework Nolan Bushnell and Atari shot to the highest point of family unit gaming. Realizing that some of nothing keep going forever particularly a solitary game framework notoriety, Nolan Bushnell and Atari began chipping away at a cartridge based framework, one that could play different games. In 1976 Bushnell Sold Atari to Warner Communications, and Warner quickly sponsored the Atari venture, and the Atari VCS later renamed the Atari 2600 was presen ted. The Atari was a success and had different game hits to oblige it, hits like the ever well known Spaced Invaders, Breakout, Missile Command, and Combat just to give some examples. Atari was the first at any point massed created home video gaming framework, selling 400,000 frameworks and hitting marketing projections of $120 million dollars during the principal Christmas season in 1977. In 1980 Mattel discharged Intellivision, and was the first to take a run at Atari’s gamming tossed. This started what some might want to call a support war among Atari and Mattel. Intellivision highlighted better game illustrations and orchestrated voices in computer games. The two frameworks welcomed on other game designers like Coleco and Activision, yet with such a significant number of the games being unlicensed games and no family unit framework lead to gaming industry crash in 1983-84 reason in numerous organizations to petition for financial protection. Nintendo, a Japanese based organizat ion turned out to be a piece of the gaming business in 1985 with its arrival of the Nintendo Entertainment System. With the absolute most mainstream titles ever like Super Mario Brothers, Metroid, and Legend of Zelda and that of outsider games like Tecmo Bowl and RBI baseball, the NES turned the non-devotees that didn’t think it was a smart thought to get into gaming after an accident, into adherents. In 1987 Sega discharged its gaming framework which overshadowed the capacities that its forerunner, the NES, had advertised. It was known as the MasterSystem yet it didn’t make the sprinkle that numerous in the Sega camp had figured it would make, because of its absence of outsider games and different things it was the downfall of the MasterSystem and the primary coming up short of Sega. Sega went legitimately back to this plan's beginning point and not long after discharged its previously hit the Sega Genesis in 1989. Upheld by many game engineers like Electronic Arts, the Sega Genesis opened the entryway for the first since forever fight for matchless quality for gaming predominance. Four years after the arrival of the Nintendo Entertainment System, Nintendo discharged its subsequent raving success, with the Gameboy. Gameboy was named the as the principal ever handheld gaming console and had a highly contrasting screen. Tetris one of the most well known Gameboy games ran the Gameboy deals through the rooftop. With many make-overs over the span of history Gameboy kept on remaining significant in gaming. 1990 was the arrival of SNK’s Neo-Geo a 24 piece home gaming framework that was supposed to be numerous years in front of its rivals and now is the ideal time. The Neo-Geo had one issue, it wasn’t 2-D illustrations those were extraordinary, it wasn’t its arcade level quality that was what everybody needed, it was neither of those two things that helped the Neo-Geo bomb it was its $650.00 sticker price and its $200.00 games that took the Neo-Geo from incredible advancement to under achiever. In 1991 Nintendo discharges the Super Nintendo Enterta inment System. Gotten the best of by Sega with its gaming framework the Sega Genesis, the 16 piece SNES made them get up to speed to do. It wasn’t well before the SNES on account of its innovative prevalence, had overwhelmed the Sega Genesis because of its enormous name games like Super Mario Brothers, Metroid, and Zelda. Before the finish of the 90’s Sega Genesis was close to a reconsideration for SNES who had assumed control over the 16 piece period and the gaming business. It wasn’t till the year 1995 that Nintendo again was tested for its gaming strength. Sony presented the Sony PlayStation a 32 piece CD-ROM based innovation and has been supposed to be the most mainstream gaming framework ever. The games had three dimensional ongoing interaction far superior to the 2-D of the past. What was the most fascination in any gamer was the cost of the games which significantly dropped contrasted with those of cartridge based games. It was likewise in 1995 the second day of Septembe r that the Sega establishment fundamentally began its downfall. This day denoted the arrival of the Sega Saturn, which was named the best most noticeably awful framework, as indicated by many. Since it was pushed up to advance beyond the recently declared PlayStation 2, it gave the Sony partnership time to kick back and clean the forthcoming PlayStation 2 and gain from the slip-ups that the Sega Saturn was making. In 1996 the Nintendo establishment countered the PlayStation with the Nintendo64, the last cartridge based framework. In spite of the fact that the cartridges stacked quicker than the CD-ROMS of PlayStation the Nintendo64 couldn’t even stay aware of the measure of games that were discharged for the PlayStation, leaving the PlayStation on the gaming for now. It was in 1998 when Sega made its last push as a contender in the realm of gaming with its arrival of the CD-based framework Dreamcast, which joined a 128-piece preparing framework. The Dreamcast was the principal framework that had a modem which took into consideration web availability that welcomed on the capacity to play on the web, download additional substance and refreshed to the framework itself. This would be the last time that anybody would here from the Sega establishment in the comfort business. In 2001 Sega suspended the Dreamcast and reported that it would leave the reassure advertise for good and taking its Sonic establishment with them. Four years after the arrival of the Nintendo64 and five years after the primary starting PlayStation, Sony discharges its second form of the PlayStation 2. The initial 128 piece framework highlighted in reverse similarity permitting the PS2 to play the more seasoned PlayStations games, and furthermore could be utilized as a DVD player. Not exclusively was the PS2 named most well known 128 piece framework yet with its discharge it denoted the ascent of reassure notoriety played over the web. 2001 was the presentatio n of the old person with another framework and the newcomer in gaming. Nintendo hit the gaming market again leaving from its typical cartridge based frameworks and presenting its first since forever CD based framework. The GameCube was showcased more for the more youthful socioeconomics and is supposed to be what made the framework lemon and undercut. Alongside the failure to interface with the web it was known as a one stunt horse and was behind in the gaming scene and home theater setups. The now newcomer Microsoft presented its own gaming framework the X-box. The PC mammoth utilized PC innovation when constructing the X-Box which took into consideration more prominent execution. In spite of the fact that the X-Box’s innovation demonstrated more noteworthy execution when contrasted with that of the 128 piece PS2 it despite everything stayed behind the quantity of deals that the PS2 had disregarding Sony at that top of the gaming scene. In 2002 Nintendo ventured back in with the Gameboy Advance and again in 2004 with the Nintendo DS. Some would contend and venture to state that all Nintendo did was step on its on toes with how they discharged the two forms so intently together. By doing so specialists say that they made the Gameboy outdated by discharging the DS unexpectedly early. Playstation before long joined Nintendo in the hand held gaming development, testing Nintendo’s predominance. The PlayStation Portable like the Gameboy and DS included remote capacity, high illustrations and non-gaming capacities mirroring PC-based gadgets. 2005 likewise denoted the arrival of the Microsoft X-Box 360. The handling intensity of the X-Box 360 was supposed to be unparalleled, and all accompanied an inward hard drive, played DVDs and had the capacity to interface four controllers one after another remotely, just as associating with the web. The Nintendo Wii was discharged in 2006 and included an inherent WiFi for web based game play, remote controllers and Bluetooth. The remote controllers weren’t new to gaming however what Nintendo brought to the table with their remote controllers was the movement sensor innovation, permitting the game to mim

Pedagology of the Oppressed Essay

A cautious examination of the educator understudy relationship at any level, inside or outside the school, uncovers its generally account character. The relationship includes a describing Subject (the instructor) and patient, listening objects (the understudies). The substance, regardless of whether esteems or experimental components of the real world, tend during the time spent being described to get dead and froze. Instruction is experiencing portrayal disorder. The instructor discusses reality as though it were unmoving, static, compartmentalized, and unsurprising. Or, in all likelihood he explains a subject totally strange to the existential experience of the understudies. His assignment is to â€Å"fill† the understudies with the substance of his portrayal †substance which are withdrawn from the real world, detached from the totality that incited them and could give them importance. Words are exhausted of their solidness and become an empty, estranged, and distancing verbosity. The remarkable quality of this account instruction, at that point, is the resonation of words, not their changing force. â€Å"Four times four is sixteen; the capital of Parã ¡ is Belã ©m.† The understudy records, remembers, and rehashes these expressions without seeing what multiple times four truly implies, or understanding the genuine importance of â€Å"capital† in the confirmation â€Å"the capital of Parã ¡ is Belã ©m,† that is, the thing that Belã ©m implies for Parã ¡ and what Parã ¡ implies for Brazil. Portrayal (with the instructor as storyteller) drives the understudies to retain precisely the described substance. More regrettable yet, it transforms them into â€Å"containers,† into â€Å"receptacles† to be â€Å"filled† by the instructor. The more totally he fills the repositories, the better an instructor he is. The more quietly the containers grant themselves to be filled, the better understudies they are. Training in this manner turns into a demonstration of saving, in which the understudies are the stores and the educator is the investor. Rather than correspondence, the instructor issues communiquã ©s and makes stores which the understudies calmly get, remember, and rehash. This is the â€Å"banking† idea of instruction, in which the extent of activity permitted to the understudies expands just to the extent accepting, recording, and putting away the stores. They do, it is valid, have the chance to become gatherers or cataloguers of the things they store. In any case, in the last examination, it is men themselves who are recorded through the absence of inventiveness, change, and information in this, (best case scenario) misinformed framework. For separated from request, aside from the praxis, men can't be genuinely human. Information rises just through creation and re-innovation, through the anxious, fretful, proceeding, cheerful request men seek after on the planet, with the world and with one another. In the financial idea of instruction, information is a blessing offered by the individuals who view themselves as educated upon those whom they consider to know nothing. Anticipating a flat out numbness onto others, a quality of the belief system of persecution, nullifies training and information as procedures of request. The instructor introduces himself to his understudies as their fundamental inverse; by thinking about their numbness supreme, he legitimizes his own reality. The understudies, distanced like the slave in the Hegelian argument, acknowledge their numbness as supporting the teacher’s presence †at the same time, in contrast to the slave, they never find that they instruct the instructor. The raison d’ã ªtre of libertarian training, then again, lies in its drive towards compromise. Training must start with the arrangement of the educator understudy logical inconsistency, by accommodating the shafts of the logical inconsistency so both are at the same time instructors and understudies. This arrangement isn't (nor would it be able to be) found in the financial idea. Despite what might be expected, banking training keeps up and even invigorates the logical inconsistency through the accompanying mentalities and practices, which reflect abusive society overall: a) the educator instructs and the understudies are educated; b) the instructor knows it all and the understudies know nothing; c) the educator thinks and the understudies are contemplated; d) the instructor talks and the understudies listen †docilely; e) the instructor disciplines and the understudies are restrained; f) the instructor picks and implements his decision, and the understudies consent; g) the instructor demonstrations and the understudies have the dream of acting through the activity of the instructor; h) the instructor picks the program content, and the understudies (who were not counseled) adjust to it; I) the educator befuddles the authority of information with his own proficient power, which he sets contrary to the opportunity of the understudies; j) the instructor is the Subject of the learning procedure, while the students are insignificant articles. It isn't amazing that the financial idea of instruction sees men as versatile, reasonable creatures. The more understudies work at putting away the stores endowed to them, the less they build up the basic awareness which would result from their mediation on the planet as transformers of that world. The more totally they acknowledge the uninvolved job forced on them, the more they tend basically to adjust to the world for what it's worth and to the divided perspective on reality saved in them. The capacity of banking instruction to limit or repeal the ‘students’ innovative force and to animate their credulity serves the premiums of the oppressors, who care neither to have the world uncovered nor to see it changed. The oppressors utilize their â€Å"humanitarianism† to protect a productive circumstance. Along these lines they respond intuitively against any test in training which invigorates the basic resources and isn't content with a halfway perspective on the real world yet consistently searches out the ties which interface one point to another and one issue to another. To be sure, the interests of the oppressors lie in â€Å"changing the awareness of the persecuted, not the circumstance which mistreats them†;[1] for the more the abused can be directed to adjust to that circumstance, the more effectively they can be commanded. To accomplish this end, the oppressors utilize the financial idea of instruction related to a paternalistic social activity device, inside which the abused get the metaphorical title of â€Å"welfare recipients.† They are treated as individual cases, as minimal men who go astray from the general arrangement of a â€Å"good, composed, and just† society. The abused are viewed as the pathology of the solid society, which should in this manner modify these â€Å"incompetent and lazy† people to its own examples by changing their attitude. These marginals should be â€Å"integrated,† â€Å"incorporated† into the solid society that they have â€Å"forsaken.† In all actuality, be that as it may, that the abused are not â€Å"marginals,† are not men living â€Å"outside† society. They have consistently been â€Å"inside† †inside the structure which made them â€Å"beings for others.† The arrangement isn't to â€Å"integrate† them into the structure of persecution, yet to change that structure with the goal that they can become â€Å"beings for themselves.† Such change, obviously, would sabotage the oppressors’ purposes; consequently their usage of the financial idea of instruction to keep away from the danger of understudy conscientizacä o. The financial way to deal with grown-up instruction, for instance, will never propose to understudies that they fundamentally think about the real world. It will manage such crucial inquiries as whether Roger gave green grass to the goat, and demand the significance of discovering that, in actuality, Roger gave green grass to the hare. The â€Å"humanism† of the financial methodology covers the push to transform men into machines †the very refutation of their ontological occupation to be all the more completely human. They may see through their relations with reality that the truth is actually a procedure, experiencing steady change. In the event that men are searchers and their ontological livelihood is adaptation, at some point or another they may see the inconsistency where banking instruction tries to look after them, and afterward draw in themselves in the battle for their freedom. Be that as it may, the humanist, progressive teacher can't trust that this chance will appear. From the beginning, his endeavors must agree with those of the understudies to take part in basic reasoning and the journey for shared acculturation. His endeavors must be pervaded with a significant trust in men and their inventive force. To accomplish this, he should be an accomplice of the understudies in his relations with them. The financial idea doesn't admit to such organization †and essentially so. To determine the instructor understudy inconsistency, to trade the job of investor, prescriber, domesticator, for the job of understudy among understudies is sabotage the intensity of persecution and serve the reason for freedom. Understood in the financial idea is the presumption of a division among man and the world: man is only on the planet, not with the world or with others; man is observer, not re-maker. In this view, man is certifiably not a cognizant being (corpo consciente); he is fairly the owner of ÃŽ ± awareness: a void â€Å"mind† inactively open to the gathering of stores of reality from the world outside. For instance, my work area, my books, my espresso mug, all the items before me †as bits of the world which encompasses me †would be â€Å"inside† me, precisely as I am inside my examination at this moment. This view sees no difference amongst being open to awareness and entering cognizance. The differentiation, nonetheless, is basic: the items which encompass me are essentially available to my awareness, not situated inside it. I am mindful of them, however they are not inside me. It

From Markets to Math Class

From Markets to Math Class I blogged last week (also here, and Kirsten did so here) about the treadmill that MIT can be: Sometimes its hard to take a step back. This is why I warn my freshman advisees against getting on the treadmill. The treadmill is the straightest path through MIT. It means doing the basic classes that everyone takes, not doing anything but your classes, doing all the sexiest internships (and not the ones which are interesting or different or that youd like to do and learn from), and then going straight into the highest paying job you can find because its there. Earlier today, a colleague sent me a news article called From Wilton to Wall Street to Teaching. Its about Mary Chin 07, from Wilton, Connecticut: Mary Chin earned her BS in civil engineering and a MEng in environmental engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She pursued a career on the Wall Street trading floor after completing several demanding internships. Although she enjoyed the fast-pace environment, Ms. Chin did not feel that she was contributing to society in ways that she had imagined. “It took about three minutes of standing in front of an 8th grade algebra class to confirm that I’d made the right decision in leaving Wall Street and becoming a teacher,” said Ms. Chin. Well, Mary just won a $175,000 five-year fellowship distributed by the Knowles Science Teaching Fellowship foundation, which supports professionals who transition into STEM education. But more importantly than that, Mary got off the treadmill. And the world is a better place for it.

Tips on Mandarin Chinese Pronunciation

One of the first steps in learning Mandarin Chinese is becoming accustomed to the languages pronunciation. Learning how to pronounce Mandarin Chinese helps with speaking and listening skills as it is a tonal language.   What Makes a Syllable? The Mandarin language has 21 consonants and 16 vowels. They can be combined together to create more than 400 mono-syllabic sounds. There are also four tones that change the meaning of the syllable, so in theory, there are about 1600 possible syllables. Only around 1000 of these are commonly used, however, which means that Mandarin words actually are more similar than words in English. Similar to English, you should learn to hear the tone differences and work on learning how to pronounce Chinese sounds. Sound Chart Here is a chart of the 37 sounds of Mandarin with a sound clip of each. Practice these as much as you can—they will provide the foundation learning how to pronounce Mandarin. The sounds are given in Pinyin, but please be aware that each letter does not represent just one sound.  Just like how in English, the vowel a is pronounced differently in different cases. For example, compare the more nasally-sounding ant to the elongated a in at. There are also  many tricky cases you need to learn  in Chinese! Pinyin Explanation Sound Clip b similar to 'b' in the English 'boat' - softened to approach a 'p' sound audio p similar to 'p' in the English 'top' - with more aspiration audio m same as 'm' in the English 'mat' audio f same as 'f' in the English 'fat' audio d similar to 'd' in the English 'down' - softened to approach a 't' sound audio t similar to 't' in the English 'top' - with more aspiration audio n similar to 'n' in the English 'name' audio l similar to 'l' in the English 'look' audio g similar to 'g' in the English 'go' - softened to approach a 'k' sound audio k similar to 'k' in the English 'kiss' - with more aspiration audio h similar to 'h' in the English 'hope' - with a slight rasp as in 'loch' audio j similar to 'j' in the English 'jeep' - tongue is positioned below lower teeth audio q similar to 'ch' in the English 'cheap' - tongue is positioned below lower teeth audio x similar to 'sh' in the English 'sheep' - tongue is positioned below lower teeth audio zh similar to 'j' in the English 'jam' audio ch similar to 'ch' in the English 'cheap' audio sh similar to 'sh' in the English 'ship' audio r similar to 'z' in the English 'azure' audio z same as 'ds' in the English 'woods' audio c similar to 'ts' in the English 'bits' audio s similar to 's' in the English 'see' audio (y)i similar to 'ee' in the English 'bee' audio (w)u similar to 'oo' in the English 'room' audio yu purse your lips and position the tongue high and forwards audio a similar to 'ah' in the English 'Ah-hah!' audio (w)o similar to 'or' in the English 'bore' audio e similar to 'er' in the English 'hers' audio (y)e similar to the English 'Yay!' audio ai similar to the English 'eye' audio ei similar to 'ei' in the English 'weigh' audio ao similar to 'au' in the English 'sauerkraut' audio ou similar to 'ou' in the English 'dough' audio an similar to 'an' in the English 'fan' audio en similar to 'un' in the English 'under' audio ang a Mandarin 'a' followed by the 'ng' sound like in the English 'sing' audio eng a Mandarin 'e' followed by the 'ng' sound like in the English 'sing' audio er a Mandarin 'e' with the tongue curled back audio

Parasitism - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 29 Words: 8650 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Biology Essay Type Descriptive essay Did you like this example? lChapter 1 General Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Fish Parasites Parasitism is an obligatory association between two distinct species, in which one species parasite is dependent on its host for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The parasites can be divided into two groups which are ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces of the host such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites usually hide within the internal tissues or organs in the host (Cheng, 1986). Fishes acts as hosts to a wide variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). Parasites are typically smaller than their host. A distinct host usually found to be infected by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Parasitism" essay for you Create order The chemical and physical factors which are either in micro-environment or macro-environment play an important role to determine the distribution and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among different age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or according to host density and behaviour (Cheng, 1986). Remarkably, parasites have a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic movement and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and starting their parasitism phase. Apart from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, causing immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause death (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic body system problems to the host. Moreover, the irritation site will initiate secondary infection by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986). 1.2 Specific parasite Gobies play a role as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans have been described as parasites of fish (Lim, 1987). They are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually. Some species of parasites have specific attachment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but most live as parasitic species on or in other organisms. There are 3 main classes under this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002). Monogeneans are typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the body surface or invade into the inner organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans have a series of hooks that enable them to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and feed on skin mucosa (Lim, 1987). Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of freshwater fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, while Gyrodactylus is typically found on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be described as viviparous during its whole life. Digenea was formerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening mouth with a sucker which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an oral sucker (Yamagutti, 1958). They are particularly found as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are sometimes found throughout the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yamagutti, 1958). The adult digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but reproduction still requires two worms. Digeneans have a complex life cycle with two to three intermediate hosts (Cheng, 1986). Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly known as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002); and a strobila which is a linear series that be formed by one or more segments (also described as proglottides) which contain reproductive structures (Yamagutti, 1959). Most of the cestodes are monoecious and each proglottid has a male reproductive system and a female reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take place in cestode (Smyth, 1962). Nematode is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, mouth, alimentary system, body cavity and the other parts (Smyth, 1962). This species can also be found as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural pest (Campbell, 2002). It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and cuticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The female is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles differ depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962). 1.3 The Family of Gobiidae The members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two hundred genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an adhesive disc (Maurice Anthony, 1993). This species usually inhabits the shore in shallow bays and estuaries and also freshwater swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restricted to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989). 1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers) The mudskippers are known as ikan belacak, ikan tembakul or ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudskipper species based on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989). Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). There are thirty four species from ten genera found throughout the world (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were found along the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004). According to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identified five species of mudskippers while Koumans (1953) had noted eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, there were four species already reported by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had studied 12 species of mudskippers (refer to Appendix A5). The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and united pelvic fins. They also have a pair of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teeth in the upper jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above water and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993). There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully out of the water. Their bronchial chamber can fill up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are abundant in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud towers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993). The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential rain in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in China, Taiwan, India and some parts of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also used as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993) 1.4.1 World Distribution of Mudskippers Mudskippers can be found around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from Indonesia to Borneo (see 3). A few species are also found in Africa and Australia, whereas none are found in the new world (refer to Appendix A1). 1.5 Literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7) There is too few research on parasitological studies of mudskipper in the Asian region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004); taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989); and the nitrogen excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993). Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new record showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005). Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infected Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be infected by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode was also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not establish any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also noted by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was detected in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri. Eighteen Gyrodactylus species were collected from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discussed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the North Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea was found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998) Longshaw et al. (2003) discovered that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by Ondrakov et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been newly recorded as being a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp. Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle concavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphallodes clomicola has a bad impact on Pomatoschistus microps (Kryer, 1838). Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had different abundance according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002). Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 collected round gobies parasitized by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 gobies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode. Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans. Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metacecaria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, mean intensity and mean abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999). 1.6 Objectives of Study This is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general survey of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an observation on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast. Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.0 Introduction The present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of mudskippers were collected and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus. Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identified and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of Dispersion, the Chi Square Test and population parameters were used to analyze data. 2.1 Methodology i) Fish collection site The fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the lowest level while the high tide had the highest point when compared to the normal time. The salinity and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the cast net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to attract fishes. The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aquarium to make sure that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was done using a taxonomic characteristic key. 2.2 Fish Dissection Each fish was killed by a blow on their head or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were placed in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater possibly contained the protozoans, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) Gill removal The operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were separated one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gills were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipette was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to scrape the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removal The alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut longitudinally from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could possibly gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996) 2.3 Parasite collection Scalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity block filled with some drops of seawater. Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites. i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasite A coverslip was placed over the parasite after it was placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen. After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a clear nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to prevent any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to the sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens. ii) Preservation methods for different types of parasite There were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and quantity of the collected parasites (see Table 1) Table 1: Preparation methods for different types of parasite Parasite Preparation methods Nematode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage Trematode Digenea Warm 10% formalin was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for storage Cestode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage 2.4 Data analysis Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was calculated to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is calculated by dividing the variance over the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is randomly dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated formula is as below: The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for significant differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented. Chi Square Test The Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square value was calculated as follow: Where as: = The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column number = The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number = It is run over all cells r = The number of rows in Chi-square table k = The number of columns in Chi-square table The calculated value was tested at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one, the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05. Population Parameter The basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to Cox (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as below: Prevalence is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population. Prevalence = Number of infected host X 100% Number of host examined Intensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host samples (mudskippers). Intensity = Total number of parasites Total number of infected host Abundance is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts. Abundance = Intensity Total number of host examined Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 3.0 Introduction This study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (refer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were identified by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3). In this study, parasites of the gills, the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and salinity of water) also were discussed (see Table 2; Appendix A2). 3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) Table 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites. Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see Table 3; 5-11). Identification is not easily to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see section 1.2; 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2; 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2; 10), and unidentified parasite cysts (see 11). Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans. Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyrodactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers. In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3; 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in the gills are considered as myxosporid. Table 2 Excel Table 3: Parasite record of the examined fish Parasite species Number of Species Microhabitat i) Digenea (see 5-8) 3 Gut and gill ii) Monogenea (see 9) 1 Gill iii) Cestode (see 10) 1 Gut iv) Nematode 1 Gut v)Unidentified parasite cysts 3.2 Parasites and their hosts Table 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus. Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is possibly because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos. Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers. There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. . Table 4: Parasites from Different Mudskippers Species Parasite Species Boleophthalmus boddarti Periophthalmus modestus Periophthalmus novemradiatus Host Species Periophthalmus chrysospilos Periophthalmodon schlosseri Pseudapocryptes Lanceolatus Scartelaos hisphorous Monogenea + Digenea + + Cestode + + Nematode + + + Unknown parasite cysts + + + = Parasite detected; = Parasite not detected Table 5: The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community Present in the Different Mudskipper Species Host Species Parasites Digenea Monogenea Nematode Cestode Unidentified cysts Boleophthalmus boddarti 0 0 0 0 395 Periophthalmus chrysospilos 136 0 0 1 0 Periophthalmus novemradiatus 10 0 7 28 6 Periophthalmus modestus 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus 0 8 0 0 0 Periophthalmodon schlosseri 0 0 25 4 0 Scartelaos histophorus 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 Parasite and their habitat The salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Sementa 2 with salinity reading from 23 to 25 and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may perhaps vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7; 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35. Cestode and nematode occurred individually in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nematodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7; 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment. Table 6: The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor Coast Locations Total of Samples pH water() Salinity Parasitic infections Infection Rate Jeram 5 N.A N.A 2 40% Carey Island 1 5 7.44 11 3 60% Carey Island 2 36 5.71 17 14 39% Carey Island 3 3 8.17 11 2 67% Sementa1 20 6.81 28 5 25% Sementa2 40 7.35-7.58 23-25 29 73% Morib 18 7.21 25-30 1 6% 2 Table 7 : Parasites in different pH range. pH of water Parasite 5.71 6.81 7.21 7.35 7.44 7.58 8.17 Digenea 10 0 1 135 0 0 1 Cestode 28 0 1 4 0 0 0 Monogenea 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 Nematode 1 4 0 25 0 0 2 Unidentified cysts 0 8 0 390 1 2 0 3.4 Compound Parasite Community Table 8 listed 402 unidentified parasite cysts recorded from the entire study. There were 146 digeneans found from the oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) and thirty two nematodes, mostly in encysted form. Monogenean was found in a small quantity from the oxdercine gobies. There were totally 8 monogeneans detected from the specimens. Table 9 showed a variation in prevalence, intensity and abundance of gobiid parasites. Monogenean had a lower prevalence which is around 2.36%. This suggests that mudskippers are not the preferred hosts of monogeneans. Digeneans have 15.75% prevalence in this study. The prevalence of unidentified parasites cysts was noted as 17.3%. The prevalence results obtained suggest that the level of parasitic infection is different among oxudercine gobies on Selangor coast (see Table 9). A distinct mudskipper species hardly ever found with parasitic infection under the natural condition. The intensity of unidentified parasite cysts and digeneans were considerably higher than the other parasites. Both of them were recorded respectively as 18.3 and 7.3 intensity. The monogeneans and cestodes achieved a similar intensity at around 2.7. The low intensity indicates that the number of parasite found from a distinct host is relatively small. The compound parasite attained a low abundance in the mudskippers, in the range of less than 0.2. Table 8: The Quantity Parasites Present in the Mudskipper from Study Sites Parasite species Quantity Digenea 146 Monogenea 8 Nematode 32 Cestode 33 Unidentified parasite cysts 402 Table 9: The Total, Prevalence, Intensity and Abundance of Compound Parasite Community in Mudskippers Parasite Species Total Prevalence (100%) Intensity Abundance Monogenea 8 2.362 2.667 0.021 Digenea 146 15.748 7.300 0.057 Cestode 33 7.874 2.750 0.022 Nematode 32 3.150 8.000 0.063 Unidentified Parasite cysts 402 17.323 18.273 0.144 2 3.5 Statistical Analysis 3.5.1 Distribution Patterns and Aggregation of parasites The distribution pattern of parasite can be estimated using Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and scheming the relationship between the mean (X) and the variance (S2). The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) predicts the aggregation of parasites is neither random, uniform nor clumped (see Table 10 11). The result of Coefficient of Dispersion (S2 X) showed that the distribution of the parasites in a study site was clumped (see Table 10). The phenomenon may be affected by environmental factors. Table 11 showed that the parasite distribution was more clumped than expected in the oxudercine gobies. The parasites usually are considered to be host specific. They need certain host to complete their life cycle. The host provides them with a suitable environment and nutrition. Table 10 : Distribution of Infected mudskippers in Study Sites Number of infected fish Number of study sites Mean, X 56 7 8.0 Variance, S2 632 7-1=6 105.3333 C.D 13.1667 Table 11 : Distribution of Parasites in Oxudercine Gobies (mudskippers) Number of parasites Number of fish species Mean, X 621 7 88.7143 Variance, S2 123209.4 7-1=6 20534.9 C.D 231.4723 3.5.2 ANOVA Test Correlation analysis was conducted using a S-PLUS statistical method (S-Plus 6.2 Academic Site Edition). The analysis of variance (one way ANOVA) was used to determine samples differences (refer to Appendix A4). Correlation analysis determined the linear relationship among the measured responses. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on each measured factors indicate that the significance between the occurrences of parasite with a distinct host species (oxudercine gobies) in a study area. Hypotheses: : The occurrence of certain parasite is independent with host species in a studied site HA : The occurrence of certain parasite is dependent with host species in a studied site 3.5.2.1 ANOVA testing for 3 measured factors on parasites of the oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) ANOVA test was done using 3 factors which are the host species, the sex of host, and the study site. This test may determine how the factors interact with gobiid parasites along the Selangor coast. Table 12 showed that the host species and environmental factors (macrohabitat) significantly affect the occurrence of parasite in the mudskippers. The sex of host (female or male) may or may not affect the occurrence of parasites on mudskippers. Table 12: The three main factors affecting the occurrences of parasites on mudskippers (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 Effect df SS MS F P Host species 6 4.75 0.79 4.69 0.00027 (S) Host Sex 1 0.57 0.57 3.38 0.06843 (S/NS) Study Site 6 5.73 0.96 5.65 0.00004 (S) Residuals 113 19.13 0.17 * Total parasites, X = Log(X+1) 3.5.2.2 ANOVA testing for 3 measured factors on the gill parasites and gut parasites ANOVA test was used to determine the relationship among the host, the sex of host and the study site with reference to the gill parasites (see Table 13) and gut parasites (see Table 15). The four genera of fish specimens were Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmus, Pseudapocryptes and Periophthalmodon. i) Gill Parasites Table 13 showed a significant effect between the host genera and the occurrences of parasites. The parasites prefer to serve certain mudskipper species as their host. The study site with a probability value of 0.06 indicates that there were some interactions between the environment of study site (macrohabitat) and the parasites on the gill of mudskippers (see Table 13). There were 3 groups of parasites found from the gills. They were digenean, monogenean and unidentified parasite cysts. Digeneans and monogeneans interact significantly with the host and environment (see Table 14). Both parasites were suggested to have host specificity. Table 13: The Three Main Factors Affecting Gill Parasites on Mudskippers (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 Effect df SS MS F P Host genera 3 1.668436 0.5561453 7.812235 0.0000854 (S) Study Site 6 0.887823 0.1479705 2.078559 0.0609336 (S/NS) Host Sex 1 0.000172 0.0001717 0.002412 0.9609126 (NS) Residuals 116 8.257925 0.0711890 * Total parasites, X = Log(X+1) Table 14: Result of ANOVA Test for Gill Parasite against Host Species, Host Sex and Study Site. (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 P value Parasites Host species Host Sex Study Site Digenea 0.003838 (S) 0.758516 (NS) 0.004617 (S) Monogenean 0.000000 (S) 1.000000(NS) 0.000000 (S) Unidentified Parasite cysts 0.238282 (NS) 0.981684 (NS) 0.812846 (NS) ii) Gut Parasites The existences of a distinct gut parasite maybe affected by the host species and the environmental factors (see Table 15). The host genera and the environment of the macrohabitat have a significant effect (in the range of P0.05) on the existence of the gut parasites. There were four types of parasites were found from the gut of the mudskippers. They were digenean, cestode, nematode and unidentified parasite cysts. Table 16 showed that the host fish species and environment of the macrohabitat could affect the quantity of digeneans. Digenean was specific to host and environment of macrohabitat. The other gut parasites showed significant interaction with host species. Table 15: The Three Main Factors Affecting Gut Parasites on Mudskippers (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 Effect df SS MS F P Host genera 3 1209.362 403.1208 6.136085 0.0006587(S) Locality 6 1028.375 171.3958 2.608893 0.0208333 (S) Sex 1 108.130 108.1295 1.645889 0.2020990 (NS) Residuals 115 7555.125 65.6967 Table 16: Result of ANOVA Test for Gut Parasite against Host Species, Host Sex and Study Site (P-values for main effect) * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 P value Parasites Host species Sex Locality Digenea 0.000000 (S) 0.000488 (S) 0.0000000 (S) Cestode 0.028748 (S) 0.134147 (NS) 0.290563 (NS) Nematode 0.000000 (S) 0.406793 (NS) 0.123248 (NS) Unidentified Parasite cysts 0.012161 (S) 0.965951 (NS) 0.506758 (NS) 3.5.3 Chi Square Test Hypotheses: : The parasites do not distribute by preferred part of a specific host species HA : The parasites distribute by preferred part of a specific host species Chi square statistics is used to test how a sample from a population follows a specified distribution. The Chi square statistics result show that a significant effect at the probability (P) value is less than 0.05. The host species and environmental factors (microhabitat and macrohabitat) independently played an important role in affecting the number and type of parasites (see Table 17). Parasites distribution was clumped among the mudskippers. They were host specific and have their own preference to inhabit the particular part of the mudskippers. Hypothesis Tested X statistic P- value Host species X Parasite compound community 1932.09 0.00 (S) Host Species X Location of parasite on fish (Gill and Gut) 110.5 0.00 (S) Table 17: Result of the X statistic on the association analysis between host species and parasite compound community; the host species and infection site of parasites. * Significant (S) = P0.05 * Non-Significant (NS) = P0.05 Chapter 4 General Discussions 4.0 Introduction The compound parasite community which was identified from different species of mudskippers consist of digenea, monogenea, cestode, nematode and unknown parasite cysts (see Table 3). Seven species of mudskippers [Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus] were collected along Selangor coast. The environmental factors may affect the density and distribution of the parasite (Cheng, 1986) based on the host species. 4.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) 4.1.1 Parasite compound community Varieties of parasites serve the fish as host in nature (see Chapter 1). Most parasites have special attachment and they depend on host metabolically (see section 1.2). Parasites suck foods and nutrients from host and set off their new stage of life cycle in the host. Besides, they able to move frequently to deal with the typical physiologic changes of the hosts inner body (see section 1.2). The parasite species differs among mudskippers in a same studied region (Marcogliese, 2002). Digenean, monogenean, cestode, nematode and unidentified parasite cysts were found internally from oxudercine gobies in the present study (see Table 3). The previous study noted that the parasitic protozoa, copepod, bacterial flora and larval helminth parasite infected different species of the mudskipper (Clayton, 1993; Table 18). Digeneans were more widely found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos than in Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Periophthalmus chrysospilos maybe served as main host by digeneans (see section 3.2). The parasites have specific attachment organs enabling them to hold onto the hosts for nourishment and transport (see section 1.2). Digeneans cysts could be found in the gills of the fish. Moreover, the gills chamber of the gobiid fishes is important macrohabitat for digeneans to complete their life cycle (see Zander, 2004; c.f section 3.1). The adult of digeneans (migrate from first intermediate host) hide within the abdominal cavity of the gobiid fishes and the attachment of these parasites may induce the mortality of their host (Pampoulie et al., 1999). Monogenean (Gyrodactylus sp.) has a direct life cycle in the fish (Cheng, 1986). Monogeneans are gill-inhabiting parasites (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). This species parasite also can be found on the fins, in the alimentary tract or on other parts of fish (Lim, 1979). The gills are important to monogenean. This parasite feeds on blood which is accessible in the gills (Lim, 1987). Monogenean seems to be host specific since only Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus harboured these parasites in the study area (see Table 4). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus have longer gill filaments rather than other mudskipper specimens. The function of the gills almost similar among fishes, whereas the morphology of the gills differs based on fish species (Lim, 1979). Monogenean has a low parasitic infection among the mudskipper species along the Selangor coast (see section 3.4). A huge quantity of unidentified parasite cysts could be found from Boleophthalmus boddarti (see section 3.2; Table 5). Boleophthalmus boddarti may be the main host for the unidentified parasite cysts if it is compared with Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Periophthalmus novemradiatus was probably served as occasional host by these unknown cysts because of its lower infection rate (see. Zander Reimer, 2002). The parasite cysts found in oxudercine gobies probably were considered as the myxosporid (in the gills) or the cysts of cestode or nematode (in the gut) (see Chapter 3). These cysts are apparently not digested by the host (Zander Reimer, 2002). No current study shows that theses parasites could obviously have impact on the biology of the mudskippers. Cestode and nematode could be found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri (see Table 2; Table 3). Most were found in encysted form from the gut dermis of the mudskippers. Instead, the adult cestode has attachment hooks (see section 1.2), and the gut (see Table 3) is probably acted as a preferred site by them. Their attachment on the gut dermis of the host may be related to the nourishment that the gut provides (Cheng, 1986). The unidentified parasite cysts, digenea, nematode and cestode were recognised as gut parasites (see Table 3). The oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) may serve as their intermediate host. The 5 groups of parasites showed different prevalence, intensity and abundance (see. Section 3.4). The gobiid fishes have a low prevelance, intensity and abundance of parasite (Camp et al., 1999). The low abundance indicates that such a parasite could not obviously bring the host to death (Pampoulie et al., 1999). Parasite distribution is more clumped than expected due to the host species and the environmental effects (see section 3.5.1). They do not follow a specified distribution in a macrohabitat (see section 3.5.3). Most parasites attach on hosts by using their distinctive adhesive organs (see section 1.2). Different species of parasites may metabolically depend on a host at different levels (Cheng, 1986). They may bring bad effects or damages to the host (Zander, 1998). Further experimental study on the effect of parasites on mudskippers is needed. 4.1.2 Host species and their occurrences Mudskippers are euryhaline organisms and they typically inhabit in mudflat and mangrove areas (Clayton, 1993). According to a previous study (from year of 1984 to 2004), 17 species of mudskippers which distribute along the Selangor coast were collected for taxonomic research. In this present study, 7 mudskipper species were caught and examined for parasites (see Appendix A5). A total of 127 mudskippers were collected at random, along the Selangor coast (Table 2). The length (L) of specimens principally ranged between 3.90 and 16.00 centimetres. The weight (W) was noted to be from 0.40 to 108.10 gram. It is suggested that the specimens consist of the mudskippers from different generation stages. Mudskippers are restricted to different environments (Khaironizam Norma-Rashid, 2004). Boleophthlmus, Pseudapocryptes and Scartelaos are more recognised as an aquatic species than Periophthalmus and Periophthalmodon (Clayton, 1993). Periophthalmus novemradiatus is a vast parasitic-infected species with various parasites being found from it. These species of mudskippers are commonly found along the straits of Malaysia (see Appendix A1). Periphthalmus modetus is rarely found on Selangor coast (see Appendix A1). This species is often found in East Pacific region (see Appendix A1). The food content of fish may provide information on the life cycle of the parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996). Unexpectedly, the diet of the mudskipper specimens is almost similar among each others. In this case, it is not an important clue to determine the parasitic infection on mudskippers. The mudskippers commonly take fish plankton, seaweeds, crustaceans and copepods as foods, while some of them prefer to eat seashells or insects (see Table 2). Apart from that, the preferences of each mudskipper species differs based on their own behaviour and food accessibility in a region. Periophthalmodon sp are recognised as carnivorous while Boleophthalmus sp is categorised as an herbivore (Clayton, 1993). The abundance or richness of a mudskipper species in an area or habitat is determined by preferences of a mudskipper on the substrate circumstance or the presence of muddy substratum and accessibility of food supply (Khaironizam Norma-Rashid, Y., 2005). 4.2 Factors affecting species distribution of parasites The environmental factors may restrict the intensity and distribution of parasites on a host (Zander, 2002). The quantity of parasite is possibly influenced significantly by pH and the salinity of water from different study areas (refer to section 3.5.2). The existence of a distinct parasite is probably affected by the environment of macrohabitat (ecosystem) and microhabitat (hosts inner condition) (Pampoulie et al., 2004). Parasites are able to inhabit in extreme environments (Cheng, 1986). The host species obviously restrict the occurrence and distribution of certain parasites in a particular area (see Chapter 3). Moreover, the occurrences of parasites also depend on the tolerance of their host as well as in brackish water (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean is host specific (see section 3.1). This parasite was only found from site Carey Island 1 which was recorded to have 11 and 7.44 pH of water. It has a low abundance along the Selangor coast (see Table 9). Besides this, cestode, nematode and digenea are less specialised to oxudercine gobies and the environment in a study site (see section 3.1-3.3). These parasites are more generalist to pH and salinity of water because they are widespread in a wide range of pH (see table 7). They develop their life cycle based on their own optimum condition (Cheng, 1986) and the occurrences of their distinct host (Zander Reimer, 2002). In this case, the occurrences and abundance of parasites are determined by environmental changes. The parasites may tolerate into different characteristics, such as the type of water or environment. The pressure of the environment such as the salinity and pH of water would affect the intensity and abundance of parasites (Zander Reimer, 2002). The parasites will clump in a favourable environment. Thus, the occurrences of parasite is determined by the adaptation of the parasite as well as its host in a ecological system (Zander Reimer, 2002; section 3.5.2) The preference of a parasite towards the different species of hosts (see Table 9) differs with each other, based on the study areas. The 7 study areas have ecological differences. Site Carey Island 1 is situated near an oil palm estate and estuarine area where the water level is always constant. Site Carey Island 2 and site Carey Island 3 are in a river bank area. The fishes from Jeram were collected from mud flat or mud bank. Sementa is located in the mixed forest zone of mangrove area. Whereas the field area in Morib where fish collection was carried out is a vast sand mud beach site. The area is situated nearby the mangrove forest. 4.3 Limitations It was not easy to obtain a complete mudskippers collection from Selangor coastal area for parasitological study in such a limited time. The best time to catch the mudskipper as during spring tide. Not all the mudskipper species from Selangor coastal area were included into the statistical analysis. The samples sizes were not in a sufficient number for data analysis because the specimens were collected randomly from different studied areas. Thus accuracy of the data analysis maybe affected. 4.4 Suggestions for further study It is important to have a sufficient number of mudskippers to observe, so as to ensure a good study. Investigations should be carried out throughout the whole coastal area in Malaysia. The research areas may include the area along the West and East Strait of Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah or Sarawak. Diversity of oxudercine gobies and parasite species of mudskippers could be discussed between Strait of Peninsular Malaysia or East and West Malaysia. A complete study should be formed for different species of oxudercine gobies. Gobies play an important role as a transmitter of a parasite. Parasites may capitalize within the food webs in an ecosystem. Dietary studies may give information about the life history of gobiid parasite. A histological work could be carried out to study the damage of the host by the parasite. Different types of parasites have different preferences on the host species and the attaching site. The effect on the host due to the attachment of parasites as well as certain species of parasites could be investigated. Species identification of parasites should be done. This will be useful for parasite taxonomy work (parasites were stained for morphological study), histological work and further study of gobiid parasites. This project already sets up a good baseline data for gobiid parasites. Various literatures and information sources on gobiid parasites have been cited, and a general introduction about oxudercine gobies and their distribution has been done. A database about parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) should be set up to share this information with other people. . Table 18: Parasite Record of Previous Study and Present Study Based on Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskipers). Host Species Parasite Record Previous Study Present Study Boleophthalmus boddarti Intestinal flagellate, agamofilial and Unidentified parasite cysts acanthocephalid cysts, cestode Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus Parasitic copepod Monogenea Periophthalmus novemradiatus Cannot be found Digenea, cestode, Nematode, Unidentified parasites cysts Periophthalmus chrysospilos Cannot be found Digenea, cestode Periophthalmus modestus Bacterial flora Cannot be found Periophthalmodon schlosseri Larval ascarid nematode, cestode, Nematode, Cestode agamofilial and acanthocephalid cysts, acanthocephalan species, parasitic Copepod Scartelaos histophorus Parasitic protozoan, myxosporidian Cannot be found sporozoan, heterophyid fluke References Abu Khair Mohammad Mohsin Mohd. Azmi Ambak. (1996). Marine Fishes And Fisheries of Malaysia And Neighbouring Countries. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Press. Serdang, Malaysia. Agbayani,Eli. Mudskippers.(1999) www.fishbase.org Viewed August, 2005 Albert, O. Bush, Jacqueline, C. Fernandez, Gerald, W. Esch, J. Richard Seed. (2001). Parasitism: The Diversity and Ecology of Animal Parasites. The press syndicate of the University of Cambridge. United Kingdom. Bunkley-Williams, L. and E. H. Williams, Jr. (1994). Parasites of Puerto Rican Freshwater Sport Fishes. Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources. Mayaguez Camp, J.W., Blaney, L.M., Barnes, D.K..(1999). Helminths of the Round Goby, Neogobius melanostomus (Perciformes:Gobiidae), from Southern Lake Michigan, Indiana. J. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 66(1).pp:70-72. Campbell, N. A, Reece, B. J. (2002) Biology. Pearson Education, Inc. 6th Ed. Charlebois, P.M., J.E. Marsden, R.G. Goettel, R.K. Wolfe, D.J. Jude, and S. Rudnika. (1997). The Round Goby, Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas), a Review of European and North American Literature. Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant Program and Illinois Natural History Survey. INHS Special Publication No. 20. 76 pp. Cheng, C.T. (1986). General Parasitology. Academic Press College. 2nd Ed. Clayton, D.A. (1993). Mudskippers. Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review. 31: 507-577 Douglas, C.M. (1997). Design and Analysis of Experiment. Arizona State University, USA. 5th Ed. Elmer, R. Noble, Glenn, A. Noble. (1961). Parasitology: The Biology of Animal Parasites. United States of America. Fahay, M. P. (1983). Guide to Early Stages of Marine Fishes Occurring in the Western Atlantic Ocean, Cape Hatteras to the Southern Scotian Shelf. Journal of the Northwest Atlantic fishery Scienc. 4, 423. FT, Mhaisen, NS, Al-Maliki (1996). Parasites, diseases and food of the dark-blotched Mudskipper Periophthalmus waltoni (Perciformes: Gobiidae) in the Khor Al-Zubair estuary (Iraq). Zoology in the Middle East. Vol. 13. Pages: 85-87 Garcia,Danika, Resnikoff,Liat, Buth,Donald G., Frost,Patrick. (2004). Intestinal Helminth Parasites of the Bay Goby, Lepidogobius lepidus (Perciformes: Gobiidae), from Bodega Bay, California, U.S.A. Journal: Comparative Parasitology. Volume: 71 Issue: 1. Pages: 86-87 Geets, Aldegonda. (1998). Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp., a monogenean from Pomatoschistus lozanoi (de Buen) (Gobiidae) from the North Sea. Systematic Parasitology, Springer Science+Business Media B.V., Formerly Kluwer Academic Publishers B.V Volume 41, Number 1.. Pages: 63 70 Geets, A., Appleby, C., Ollevier, F., (1999). Host- dependent and Seasonal Variation in Opisthaptoral Hard Part of Gyrodactylus cf. arcuatus from Three Pomatoschistus spp. and G. arcuatus from Gasterosteus aculeatus: A Multivariate Approach. Parasitology. 119. 27-40 George, H.P. De Bruin, Barry, C. Russell, Andre Bogusch. (1995). The marine Fishery Resources of Sri Lanka. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation. Italy. Goby. (2001) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobiidae Viewed April 16, 2006 Insightful, Corp. (2002). S-Plus 6.2 Academic Site Edition. James L. VanTassell.Goby, Wikipedia. ( 2000) https://gobiidae.com Viewed August, 2005 Joseph, S. Nelson. (1984). Fishes of the World. A Wiley-Interscience Publication John Wiley sons. 2nd Ed.United States of America. Khaironizam, Md. Zain. (2004). Behaviour And Ecology Of Oxudercine Gobies (Gobiidae:Oxudercinae) Along The Klang Straits Selangor. Dissertation (M.Sc.). University of Malaya. Khaironizam, M.Z., Norma-Rashid, Y. (2005). Distribution of Mudskippers (Gobiidae:Oxudercine) on the Selangor Coast. Unversity of Malaya. Lynda, D. Corkum, Mariusz, R. Sapota, Krzysztof, E. Skora. (2003). The Round Goby, Neogobius melanostomus, a Fish Invader on Both Sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Biological Invasions. 6:173-181. Marcogliese, D. J. (2002). Food Webs and the Transmission of Parasites to Marine Fish. Parasitology. 124:S83-S99. Malek, M. (2001). Effects of the Digenean Parasites Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum on the Growth Parameters of Pomatoschistus microps and P. minutus from Southwest Wales. Parasitol Res. 87:349-355. Marianne, K., Christopher, M.W., Michael, L. K. (2004). Ellipsomyxa gobii(Myxozoa: Ceratomyxidae) in the common goby Pomatoschistus microps (Teleostei: Gobiidae) Uses Nereis spp. (Annelida:Polychaeta) as invertebrate Hosts. Folia Parasitologica. 51:14-18. Maurice Kottelat and Anthony J. Whitten. (1993). Freshwater Fishes of Western Indonesia and Sulawesi. Periplus Editions. Indonesia. MattLongshaw, MarkPursglove and AndrewP.Shinn. (2003). Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae), a parasite of the leopard-spotted goby Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe) from the south-western coast of the UK. Volume 55, Number 2. Pages: 151-157 Murdy, E O. (1989). Records of The Australian Museum: A Taxonomic Revision and Cladistic Analysis of The Oxudercine Gobies). Gobiidae: Oxurdercinae). Australia. Noru*sis, M. J. (Marija J.).(1948). SPSS 13.0 Guide to Data Analysis. Prentice Hall. Ondrakov M., Dvidov M., Penkov M., Blaek R., Valov M. Z., ern J. and Jurajda P.. (2005). Metazoan parasites of Neogobius fishes in the Slovak section of the River Danube. Journal of Applied Ichthyology. Volume 21 Issue 4. Page 345 Pampoulie, C., Rosecchi, E., Bouchereau, J-L. (2004). Do Environmental Changes Influences The Occurences and Effect of Parasite?. Journal of Negative Result. Vol1: 8-15. Pampoulie, C., Morand, S., Lambert, A., Rosecchi E., Bouchereau, J. L. and Crivelli, A. J.. (1999). Influence of the Trematode Aphallodes clomicola Dollfus, Chabaud Golvan, 1957 on the Fecundity and Survival of Pomatoschistus microps (Kryer, 1838) (Teleostei: Gobiidae). Parasitology. Cambridge University Press. Volume 119. Pages: 61-67 Peggy Reed, Ruth Francis-Floyd, and RuthEllen Klinger. (1996). Monogenean Parasites of Fish. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Florida, United States of America. Richard Mleczko. Mudskipper. (2005) https://members.ozemail.com.au/~thebobo/goby.htm Viewed August, 2005 Sohn, W. M., Kim, Jung-A, Song, Hyun-Jae. (2005). Two Species of Goby, Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp., as The New Second Intermediated Hosts of Hetrophyid Fluke in Korea. The Korean Journal of Parasitology. Vol 43. (4). 161-164. Solomon, E. P, Berg, L. R, Martin, W. D. (2002). Biology. Thomson Learning, Inc. 6th Ed. Takahiko Mukai, Periophthalmus modestus. (3 November 1998) https://homepage2.nifty.com/PhD-mukai/Laboratory/Periophthalmus/Periophthalmus.html Viewed April 16, 2006 Tine Huyse , Vanessa Audenaert and Filip A. M. Volckaert. (2003). Speciation and host-parasite relationships in the parasite genus Gyrodactylus (Monogenea, Platyhelminthes) infecting gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus (Gobiidae, Teleostei). International Journal for Parasitology. 33:1679-1689.Belgium. Yamaguti, S. (1953). Systema Helminthum. Interscience Publishing, Inc. Yamaguti, S. (1958). Systema Helminthum. Interscience Publishing, Inc. Vol 1. Yamaguti, S. (1959). Systema Helminthum. Interscience Publishing, Inc. Vol 2. Zander, C.D. (1998). Colonization and Seasonality of Goby (Gobiidae, Teleostei) Parasites from Southwestern Baltic Sea. Parasitol Res. 84:459-466. Zander, C.D. (1998). Ecology of Host Parasite Relationship in the Baltic Sea. Naturwissenschaften. Vol 85:426-436. Zander, C.Dieter. (2004). Four-year Monitoring of Parasite Communities in Gobiid Fishes of the South-Western Baltic II. Infracommunity. Parasitology Research. Springer-Verlag GmbH. Volume 93, Number 1. Pages:17 29 Zander, C.D., Kocoglu, O., Skroblies, M., Strohbach, U.(2002). Parasite Populations and Communities from the Shallow Littoral of the Orther Bight (Fehmarn, SW Baltic Sea). Parasitol Res. 88:734-744. Zander, C.D., Strohbach, U., Groenewold. S.(1993).The Importance of gobies (Gobiidae, Teleostei) as Hosts and Transmitters of Parasites in the SW Baltic. Helgolander Meeresuntersuchungen. 47:81-111.

The Forbidden Game The Chase Chapter 13 Free Essays

string(65) " was on the floor, in a lightly scorched circle on the concrete\." â€Å"Stupid old lady,† Michael said as Dee pulled the Spider out of the carport. â€Å"She doesn’t even use this space, but will she let anybody else park here? God forbid. Now we have to go all the way down to the garage-take a left up there and go around the trash cans. We will write a custom essay sample on The Forbidden Game: The Chase Chapter 13 or any similar topic only for you Order Now † â€Å"I didn’t even know this place had a garage,† Dee said. â€Å"Dad and I never use it,† Michael said as Dee pulled into a dark entrance and headed down a ramp. â€Å"The carports are a lot more convenient.† â€Å"Yeah, but right now it’s probably a good idea to have Audrey’s car down here. In fact, we might want to put all the cars here-if somebody notices them outside your apartment, it’s a dead giveaway that we’re all here. We should have thought of that before.† â€Å"I guess,† Michael said without enthusiasm. â€Å"I dunno-when I was a kid I always hated this place. I had the idea there ought to be a dragon at the bottom of it.† Dee grinned. â€Å"It’s just a garage, Mikey.† But he was right, she thought. There was something unpleasant about the garage. It was dingy and badly lit, and she could see how a kid with an active imagination might think of dragons. Don’t be ridiculous, she told herself. It’s broad daylight-but it wasn’t. They had turned the corner to the lower level of the garage, and it was as dark as twilight down here with the flickering bluish fluorescents on the ceiling. A strange and unnatural twilight. Even as she thought it, the lights around them flickered wildly and went out. It was like being plunged into the tunnel on a roller coaster. Dee suddenly felt that everything was happening too fast-while at the same time it was all happening in slow motion, frame by frame. Her eyes weren’t dark-adapted yet-in that first instant she could see nothing. But she heard the growl from the back of the car clearly. It was a thick, clotted, animal sound. A large sound-the timbre alone let you know that only something big could have produced it. So low and dragging that it sounded like a soundtrack in slow motion. It sounded like a hallucination. â€Å"What-† Michael was tearing at his seat belt, turning to look. Dee saw the whites of his eyes. Then, as she twisted her head over her shoulder, she got a glimpse of what was in the back of the car. Pale eyes and white teeth in gaping jaws. Dee’s vision was adapting. She saw a hulking shape materializing in that incredibly small space-as if it were coming through a door in the area between the cabin and the trunk. Coming and coming like a genie emerging from a bottle. It isn’t all the way out yet, Dee realized. There was no time to think about anything. â€Å"Get out!† she shouted. Michael was frozen, clutching the seat and gasping. Dee reached across him, fingers clenching on the Spider’s door handle. She flung the door open and shoved him, braking automatically at the same instant. Michael went tumbling and thudding out. Dee felt a rush of air on her cheek-warm as the blast from under a microwave, and wet. A feral, musky odor made her nostrils flare. The snarl was directly in her ear. Move, girl! She hit the accelerator. The snarl fell back, and she heard the scrabbling of claws just behind her. In one motion Dee opened her own door and vaulted out. To-jin-ho was the art of falling on hard surfaces. Dee took this fall rolling and was on her feet in time to see the Spider cruise into the block wall of the garage. Some distant part of her mind watched the impact with a sort of joyful awe. Now there was a crash, she thought, and flashed a barbaric smile at nothing. Then she saw movement. Something was emerging from the Spider. She heard a rising snarl. Dee spun on her heel and ran. She could see the light of the stairwell in front of her. If she could make it there – She felt her Nikes rebound from the concrete, felt her arms swinging, her lungs pumping. Her teeth drew back again in a grin. In that moment Dee Eliade was filled with a joy in living so intense she felt she could fly. â€Å"C’mon, you freakin’ fleabag!† she shouted over her shoulder and heard herself laugh wildly. â€Å"Come and get me!† She’d never fought a four-legged opponent before, but she was sure going to give it a try. She’d see how a wolf reacted to a roundhouse kick. She reached the stairwell and spun, still laughing, The blood was singing in her veins, every breath she took was sweet. Her muscles were electric with vibrant energy. She felt balanced and dynamic and ready for anything. Then she heard the creak of a door behind her-and an endless, savage hiss. Michael was picking himself up as Jenny and Tom turned the corner, staring into the depths of the dim garage. He was clutching at one ankle. â€Å"Dee-?† Jenny gasped. Echoes of a metallic crash were still reverberating in her mind. Michael waved toward the back of the garage. Jenny saw it then-a large, dim shape against the wall. The Spider. The lights flickered and went on, and she saw color. The Spider’s front end was crumpled. There was no sign of Dee. â€Å"Come on!† Tom was already running toward the car. Then he looked left and shouted, â€Å"The stairway!† The door there was swinging shut. Jenny heard it clang, felt her chest heave as they ran. Tom reached it and seized the handle with both hands, wrenching at it. The door swung open, slamming against the wall. A single fluorescent panel flickered high above in the stairwell, and Jenny could hear echoes of her own panting breath in the little room. But nothing moved except shadows. Dee’s paper doll was on the floor, in a lightly scorched circle on the concrete. You read "The Forbidden Game: The Chase Chapter 13" in category "Essay examples" â€Å"He’s going to get us all.† Jenny tightened the Ace bandage around Michael’s ankle. â€Å"If Dee couldn’t get away from them, what kind of chance do we have?† Jenny fixed the little metal clips in the bandage and sat back. â€Å"The clues aren’t fair,† Michael said. He was still breathing hard, and his eyes were too wide, showing white around the dark irises. â€Å"You said you and Tom ran straight down there once you got this one-which means you didn’t have time. He’s not going to give any of us enough time. And we’re never going to find the base.† Jenny closed the plastic first aid kit. The paper doll was lying on the coffee table beside it. On its back, which wasn’t characteristic of Dee at all. The black crayon eyes stared up at the ceiling with a crafty look. They had pushed Audrey’s car to the very back of the garage, where they hoped no one would find it. Jenny supposed they were lucky no one had come to investigate the crash-but did it really matter anymore? Did anything really matter? â€Å"Am I just talking to myself here? Isn’t anybody going to say something?† Jenny looked at Michael, then at Tom, who was pacing the hall, not looking at them. She turned back to Michael, and her eyes met his. Their gazes locked a moment, then he sank back on the couch, his anger fading. â€Å"What is there to say?† Jenny said. They spent the evening in silence; Tom pacing and Michael and Jenny sitting. Staring at a blank TV screen. It was all going to come crashing down soon-their carefully built structure of deception. Jenny had called her aunt Lily to say that Zach was upset and was spending the night with Tom. She’d called Dee’s mother and told her Dee was staying with her. Neither mother had been happy. It was only a matter of time before one of them called Tom’s house or Jenny’s house and everything came out. And Michael was right. They weren’t going to find the base-not on the information they had now. They needed more. She was actually glad that night when Julian showed up in her dreams. It had taken her a long time to get to sleep-she’d lain for hours staring at the empty couch where Dee should have been. The last clear thing she remembered was deciding she was never going to sleep at all that night-and then she must have shut her eyes. When she opened them, she knew she hadn’t really opened them at all. She was dreaming again. She was standing in a white room. Julian was standing in front of a table, with the oddest thing stretched out in front of him. It was a sort of model, with houses and trees and roads and street lights. Like a railway model, only without the train, Jenny thought. But it was the most elaborate model she’d ever seen; the miniature trees and bushes were exquisitely made, and the little houses had various windows alight. Not just a model, Jenny realized. It’s Vista Grande -it’s my neighborhood. There’s my house. Julian was holding a small figure of a wolf above one of the streets. He set it down carefully, looked up at Jenny, and smiled. Jenny didn’t smile back. Although she was dreaming, her head was clear-and she had a purpose in mind. She was going to get all the information she could from him. â€Å"Is that how you tell them what to do? The wolf and the snake?† â€Å"Possibly.† He added, just as seriously as she had asked her question, â€Å"What’s black inside, white outside, and hot?† Jenny, mouth opened to speak again, shut it and gave him the kind of look Audrey frequently gave Michael. â€Å"What?† she said tightly. â€Å"A wolf in sheep’s clothing.† â€Å"Is that what you are?† â€Å"Me? No, I’m a wolf in wolf’s clothing.† He looked up at her, and light flashed in his wild, exotic sapphire eyes. I don’t know how I ever mistook him for a human, Jenny thought. Julian was from an older and wilder race. One that had fascinated and terrified humans from the beginning. I will not be distracted, she told herself. Not this time. I will remember what I want from him. â€Å"What do you think of the new Game?† â€Å"It isn’t fair,† Jenny said promptly. â€Å"Isn’t sporting, † she added, remembering what Julian thought of the idea of fairness. â€Å"It’s not a game at all if we don’t have a chance to find your base.† â€Å"And you think you don’t have a chance?† â€Å"Not without some kind of information.† Julian threw back his head and laughed, his hair shining like white jade. â€Å"You want a hint?† He looked at her with those veiled, liquid-blue eyes. â€Å"Yes,† Jenny said flatly. â€Å"And you’d give it to me if you wanted it to be any kind of real contest. But you probably don’t.† He clicked his tongue at her. â€Å"You really think I’m an ogre, don’t you? But I’m not so bad. You know, if I wanted, I could manipulate the Game so I couldn’t lose. For instance †¦Ã¢â‚¬  He lifted the wolf and held it judiciously over another street. Jenny recognized the pale gray wood-frame house and the tiny towheaded figure in front of it. â€Å"Cam!† She looked at Julian. â€Å"You wouldn’t! You said-â€Å" His long lashes drooped. â€Å"I said I’d keep this Game to the original players-and I will. I’m just telling you what I could do. So you see I’m not so bad after all.† â€Å"Gordie Wilson wasn’t a player.† â€Å"He put his nose in where he wasn’t wanted.† â€Å"And what about P.C. and Slug?† Julian’s smile was chilling. â€Å"Oh, they were players, all right. They played their own game-and they lost.† So now I know, Jenny thought. I suppose I’ll have to tell Angela-if I live to do it. She was staring down at the tiny towheaded figure of Cam when something else occurred to her. She looked up. â€Å"Was it you who made those kids play lambs and monsters?† she asked. â€Å"All that violence-were you influencing them?† â€Å"Me?† He gave his black velvet laugh again. â€Å"Oh, Jenny-they don’t need me. Children are that way naturally. Children’s games are that way. Haven’t you noticed?† Jenny had, but she said nothing. She turned away. â€Å"War and hunting and chasing-that’s all there is. That’s life, Jenny-no one can escape it.† He was standing behind her now. â€Å"And why should we? There’s excitement in the chase, Jenny. It gets the blood going. It sends chills through the body†¦.† Jenny stepped away. Her blood was going. His voice, strange and haunting as the melody she’d heard on the hotel balcony at the prom, sent a shiver of awareness through her. Cat-quiet, he followed her. I will not turn around, she thought. I will not. â€Å"Love and death are everything, Jenny. Danger is the best part of the game. I thought you knew that.† Part of her did. The wild part that he had changed. The part of her, Jenny thought suddenly, that would always belong to him. â€Å"And I thought you were going to give me a hint,† she said. â€Å"Of course, if you want-but nothing is free.† Jenny nodded without turning. She’d expected this. â€Å"Give the hint first,† she said flatly. â€Å"You can find your friends behind a door.† Jenny frowned. â€Å"What kind of a door? Have I seen it?† â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"Have I been through it?† â€Å"Yes-and no.† â€Å"What kind of an answer is that?† she said, angry enough to turn. She could face him when she was furious. â€Å"It’s as clear as black and white-if you know the right way to look at it. Now,† he said, â€Å"the price.† He stepped to her and bent his head. It took all her self-control to remain rigid and unresponsive in his arms. At last she gasped and pulled away. â€Å"Oh, Jenny. Let’s stop playing-we don’t need to play this Game anymore. You can have your friends back-you want Dee back, don’t you?† â€Å"I’ll get her back,† Jenny said shakily. She still felt tingles of electricity in every place Julian had touched her. â€Å"I’ll get them all back-my way.† â€Å"As usual, I admire your confidence,† he said. â€Å"But you can’t win. Not against me, Jenny. I’m the master player.† â€Å"A door I’ve been through but haven’t been through,† she said. â€Å"A door that needs to be looked at in the right way.† He smiled. â€Å"A door in the shadows. But you won’t find it until I take you through it.† We’ll see, Jenny thought. Things were getting blurry around her-the shadows were growing. The dream fading. â€Å"Here,† Julian said. â€Å"To remember me by.† He put a silver rose in her hand. Jenny recognized it. It was the rose he had given her in the Erlking’s cavern, a shimmering half-open blossom, perfect down to the tiniest detail. The petals cool but soft in her palm. There was something like a slip of white paper wrapped around the stem. This time I’m going to wake up right away, she thought. She did. The silver rose was lying on her pillow. She almost knocked it off, sitting up quickly to look at the bundles of blankets on the living room floor. Tom and Michael were both there. Two dark heads on white pillows. Jenny leaned over and shook the nearest shoulder. â€Å"Michael, Tom, wake up. I’ve got the next clue.† But when she unraveled the slip of paper from the stem, she wasn’t sure. â€Å"It’s French,† Michael said. â€Å"And none of us speaks French. It isn’t fair.† â€Å"Life isn’t fair,† Jenny muttered, staring at the words on the paper in frustration. There were only six of them. Pas de lieu Rhone que nous. â€Å"If we only had Audrey,† she said. â€Å"Nous means ‘we,’ I think-or is it ‘you’?† â€Å"Maybe Dad’s got a French-English dictionary somewhere,† Michael said. Tom didn’t even try to join in the conversation. He had looked at the silver rose, and then at Jenny, and then he had settled back. Now he was staring down at his own hands. Jenny started to speak to him, then stopped. As she’d told Michael before, what was there to say? The ring felt as cold as ice and as heavy as lead on her finger. Michael found the French dictionary the next morning, but Jenny still couldn’t make much sense of the clue. The words were French, but they didn’t seem to make any sense when you put them together. â€Å"It’s about me, I know it is,† Michael said. â€Å"Because it’s French, and Audrey’s connected with French, and I’m connected with Audrey. I’m next.† â€Å"You’re ridiculous,† Jenny said. â€Å"We don’t know which of us it is-but if we all stay together-â€Å" â€Å"Staying together didn’t do Michael and Dee much good,† Tom said from what had become his habitual position, pacing the hallway. â€Å"He’s going to get us all. One by one,† Michael said softly. â€Å"And I’m next.† Jenny stared down at the dictionary and rubbed her eyes. It was dark and stuffy in the apartment. Outside the sky was cloudy, gray as concrete. Jenny felt like a rat in a trap. She tried thinking about the base instead of the French clue. She’d told Michael and Tom what Julian had said about the door, but none of them could make anything of it. Now Tom was pacing endlessly, and Michael was staring at nothing, and Jenny was very tired. Her head felt stuffy and her eyes hurt. She’d had almost no sleep last night. Maybe if she shut her eyes she could think better. If she shut them just for a few minutes†¦ The crash woke her up with a jerk. â€Å"Sorry,† Michael whispered guiltily, picking up a TV tray. He looked even more nervous than usual-almost wild. His hair was sticking up all over his head, and his eyes reminded Jenny of a hamster she’d once had-a frantic hamster that had always tried to run away from her. â€Å"What time is it?† Jenny whispered back, trying to clear her head. It was almost as dark as night. â€Å"About four. You slept for a while.† Jenny wondered vaguely why they were whispering, then saw the bundle of blankets on the floor in Tom’s place. He was wrapped like a mummy, even Ms head covered. Good-he needs rest, too, Jenny thought, shifting. The slip of paper rustled on her lap. Jenny’s blurred eyes focused on the writing on it, her foggy brain seeing the words not as words but merely as letters-sounds. Pas de lieu †¦ She straightened suddenly, her breath hissing. Michael nearly jumped out of his skin. â€Å"What is it?† He limped hastily over to her. â€Å"What-did you figure it out? Is it me?† â€Å"Yes-oh, we’ve been so stupid, Michael. We didn’t need the dictionary. It’s not French at all.† â€Å"Even I can recognize that much French.† Jenny clutched at his arm. â€Å"The words are French, but it isn’t a French sentence. I figured that out with the dictionary-the words don’t make any sense when you put them together. It only makes sense in English.† â€Å"What are you talking about, English?† Michael forgot to whisper. â€Å"Just say the words to yourself, Michael. Pronounce them the French way, but kind of run them together.† â€Å"Pas†¦ de†¦ lieu †¦ Rhone†¦ que†¦ nous-it doesn’t say anything!† â€Å"Yes, it does. It says ‘Paddle your own canoe.'† Michael’s lips formed the words silently as he stared at the paper, then he hit himself in the forehead. â€Å"Oh, my God. You’re right. But, Jenny†- he dropped his hand and looked at her-â€Å"what does it mean?† â€Å"I don’t know.† Jenny glanced out the window, where large drops were hanging from the eaves of the walkway and small drops pattered on the concrete. â€Å"But it’s got something to do with water, I bet-so none of us can go outside. But don’t you realize, Michael†-she turned to him excitedly-â€Å"we’ve done it! We’ve finally done it! We have a clue, and we have all of us here and safe. We can win this one!† Something about Michael’s expression made her heart jolt. And then she realized-she and Michael hadn’t been whispering for some time. They’d almost been shouting-but Tom’s blankets hadn’t stirred. â€Å"Michael-† He was staring at her in terror. The hamster look again. In a single motion Jenny darted to seize Tom’s blankets, to yank them away. She just stared at the bunched-up pillows underneath. She could feel herself folding inside. Collapsing. â€Å"Michael.† She spoke without moving, still holding the blankets. Then she lifted her head and looked at him. He flinched and raised a hand defensively. â€Å"Where is he, Michael?†-deceptively softly. â€Å"He made me, Jenny-I told him not to, but he wouldn’t listen-â€Å" â€Å"Michael, where is he?† Somehow Jenny had gotten two fistfuls of Michael’s gray sweatshirt, and she was shaking him. â€Å"Where did he go?† Speechlessly Michael looked toward the gray and dripping window. There were tears in his dark spaniel eyes. â€Å"He went to the mountains,† he gasped after a moment. â€Å"You know the place he told us about-where they found Gordie Wilson. He thought he could find the base there-or maybe just kill the wolf or the snake. He said that killing them might help you and me, even if he-† He stopped and began again. â€Å"I told him not to, Jenny-I told him not to go-â€Å" Jenny heard her own voice, sounding strangely quiet and detached. Almost musical. â€Å"To the mountains. Where they found Gordie Wilson-in a creek bed. Isn’t that right, Michael?† Michael blinked at the lines of slanting gray outside. â€Å"In a creek †¦Ã¢â‚¬  he whispered. Then they just looked at each other. â€Å"Come on,† Jenny said at last. â€Å"We’ve got to find him.† â€Å"He told me to keep you here-â€Å" â€Å"Nothing will keep me here. I’m going, Michael. The only question is whether you’re going with me.† Michael gulped, then said, â€Å"I’m going.† â€Å"Then let’s get out of here. We may already be too late.† How to cite The Forbidden Game: The Chase Chapter 13, Essay examples